The history of Funan, Chenla, and Lin-yi （2021-2-8）

　　Silapakorn Association Seminar

Indroduction

The histories of the ancient Southeast Asia written in the 20th century were full of mistakes and misunderstandings. Many of western historians have little knowledge of the Chinese script and could not read accurately the Chinese text, “the official histories of the Chinese Dynasties (正史)”. Of course, there are some translations of the Chinese text, but the translators did not fully understand the historical situations. The main sources of these Chinese texts are reports of the foreign envoys. There are some exaggeration and lies, but generally their reports were correct and reliable compared with other sources.

After G.Coedès established ‘the Palembang hypothesis’, most historians had followed him and gone to the wrong way, and they were misguided to the unrealistic direction. The existing histories of Srivijaya have been full of mistakes. The wrong histories have been lectured to the world students for 100 years. Even today, many people believe that the capital of Srivijaya was located at Palembang in the Sumatra Island. However, I have discovered that Palembang theory is completely mistaken. The location of Srivijaya (Shi-li-fo-shi) was in the Malay Peninsula and its capital was Chaiya, Surat Thani province of Thailand. In the Xin Tang Shu (New History of the Tang Dynasty) clearly states that “the west of Shi-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya) is the Nicobar Islands(Lang Balus=婆露斯)”. So, Shi-li-fo-shi was in the Malay Peninsula, not Palembang.

“室利佛逝，一曰尸利佛誓。過軍徒弄山二千里，地東西千里，南北四千里而遠。有城十四，以二國分總。西曰郞婆露斯”

In the 9th century, Arab merchants used this word frequently. In this case, 郞婆露斯＝ Langbalus is the name of island between Sri Lank and Kedah, ‘the Nicobar Islands’.

Ibn Khordadbeh says that from Serendib (Sri Lanka) to ‘Langabalus’, it takes 10-15 days to cover its distance, and from ‘Langbalus’ to Kalah (Kedah), it is 6 days”.

But without the knowledge of ‘Langbalus’, I could have proved Chaiya is the capital of Srivijaya, by using other Chinese text, for instance Yi-Jing’s “Nan-hui Chi-kuei Nei-fa Chuan (南海寄帰内法伝)”, “The Standard Histories of China Dynasties（正）” , especially the Xin Tang Shu （新唐書）and classical Chinese ‘Encyclopedia’ such as “Tong-Dian（通典）“ and so on. When I read G.Coedès. I was confused.　G.Coedès says Palembang was the intermediary port of East-West trade. Considering the geology, I thought it was impossible, Indian or Persian merchants should have used ‘Mulayu’ the Riau Islands, just in front of Singapore.

G.Coedès　had made two fatal mistakes at the starting point of ‘the history of Srivijaya’.

The first; he thought Funan rulers fled to the Jawa Island after kicked out from the Mekong Delta by Chenla. However, they actually fled to Chaiya (盤盤＝Ban-Ban or Pan-Pan) which used to be a subordinate state of Funan, since the 3rd century. The most European historians had not noticed the importance of the Malay Peninsula. They had ignored geological importance of the Malay Peninsula and influence of the monsoon. In the 4th century, the western merchants began to utilize the monsoon and directly crossed the Bay of Bengal from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and South India, and they could have arrived at the ports of the Malay Peninsula, for instance Kedah and Takua Pa. However, in the summer time they could not go down the Malacca Straits directly to the south, due to the southern head wind. So, they had to wait for the north-eastern wind until the winter time for nearly 5 to 6 months. So, some of them developed the trans-peninsula route to the East coast of the Peninsula to cut the idle time. From the east coast ports, they used other ships and went to China in the same year. G. Coedès did not understand the importance of the trans Malay Peninsula routes, and he thought the middle point of East-West trade was at the Sunda Straits. He overestimated the importance of the Jawa Islands.

The second misunderstanding of G. Coedès is the meaning of the Kedukan Bukit Inscription dated 683. He understood the inscription was the memory of the ‘establishment of Srivijaya’. So, he thought Srivijaya was founded in 683 at Palembang. However, Srivijaya force came from the Malay Peninsula with fleet of rowing boats and occupied the Palembang kingdom in 683, and the inscription was the ‘monument of victory’ of Srivijaya. Actually, Srivijaya had sent the first mission to the Tang Dynasty between 670-673, according to the Xin Tang Shu. Yi-Jing（義浄） left Canton for India for pilgrim in 671, at that time he already had known about Srivijaya, where he studied the Sanskrit grammar for 6 months.

When we study the histories of Southeast Asia, local inscriptions and the Chinese Chronicles are major sources. But Chinese text is very difficult for western historians to read directly. Fortunately, we Japanese have knowledge of the Chinese words more or less, and are comparatively easy to read the Chinese texts. But in this case, the words ‘Langbalus’ have been very difficult and overlooked occasionally. Perhaps, G.Coedès decided ‘Srivijaya is Palembang’, so Japanese historians might have followed him, and had not doubted his theory.

In the Sui Shu（『隋書』＝History of Sui ), the word ‘Balus (婆羅娑)’is used for Chi tu (赤土國、Red-Earth) country. In this case, Balus is same as’Langbalus(郎婆露斯), so Chi-tu was located at the Malay Peninsula too. So, I can suppose Chi-tu was merged with Shi-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya) in the 7th century. Thereafter, Shi-li-fo-shi had unified the middle of the Malay Peninsula before 670.

After 741, Srivijaya suddenly stopped sending missions to Tang, but no record explained the reason. Srivijaya, located at Chaiya was probably attacked by Khmer (Water Chenla) around 745. That is the only conceivable reason why Srivijaya had disappeared from the Tang Chronicle. However, Srivijaya had 14 vassal states. The Sailendra kingdom (central Jawa Island) had organized big fleet of navy and counter attacked Chenla and recovered Chaiya and Nakhon Si Thammarat area around 760.

After the victory, The Srivijaya group set up the victory monument at Chaiya. That is the ‘Ligor inscription’ dated 775. After the victory, the Srivijaya group proceeded to Cambodia and Lin-yi (Champa) and occupied major ports of the Mekong River and destroyed Lin-yi’s facilities. Later, Srivijaya sent army to Chenla to occupy the inland of Cambodia and the commander was Jayavarman II, who possibly came from the royal family of old Funan (Srivijaya). Jayavarman II is the founder of the ‘Angkor Dynasty’ and he had declared independence from ‘Java’, according to the Sdok Kok Thom inscription dated 1053. In this case ‘Java’ means the Malay Peninsula, namely Srivijaya. Quaritch Wales has the similar opinion, but Michael Vickery and Claude Jacques strongly opposed the influence of Srivijaya over Angkor.

Jayavarman II told a lie to the local chiefs of Khmer. He declared ‘independence from Srivijaya’, but actually he obeyed the instruction of Srivijaya. One evidence is Angkor had not sent its envoys to China during 815 to 1116. The reason is probably Angkor was prohibited by Srivijaya to send tributary mission to China. Furthermore, Jayavarman II, propagated Mahayana Buddhism in Cambodia. The former Chenla kings had prohibited to worship Buddhism, according to Yi-Jing’s description. The Angkor Dynasty had been under control of Srivijaya until Suryavarman I’s reign (1002-1050). He was a prince of Nakhon Si Thammarat. However, after Jayavarman VI (1080~), the throne of Angkor was taken over by the Phimai group, which had no direct relation with Srivijaya group. Srivijaya group had lost strong military power after the invasion of Chola (1025).

About Lin-yi, a strong rival of Funan and Srivijaya, suddenly stopped to send the tributary mission to Tang after 749. No record was left about this matter, and no historian discussed the reason. But I suppose, Lin-yi had been also attacked by the Sailendra (Srivijaya) navy, around 760. Probably Srivijaya might have destroyed shipping facility (merchant ships) of Lin-yi. Lin-yi could not have recovered from the damage. But few historians believe Srivijaya had destroyed the trade facilities of Lin-yi. On the contrary they believe Srivijaya (Sailendra navy) was successfully expelled by King Satyavarman, who left inscription dated 774. Sailendra (under the name of Kha-ling) sent the first mission to Tang in 768, so before that Sailendra might have destroyed trade facility and navy of Lin-yi.

Michael Vickery has correctly criticized G.Coedès about his historical theories on Khmer, but M. Vickery has probably embraced Palembang theory. Q. Wales had opposed G.Coedès in many points but he admitted that Yi Jing had been to Palembang. Yi Jing had never been to Sumatra, he just stopped over the Mulayu (末羅瑜）kingdom in his itinerary. The ancient Mulayu was located at the Riau Islands, just in front of Singapore in the 7th century, and which was an intermediary state of ‘East-West’ trade.

Dr. Junjiro Takakusu (高楠順次郎) put a sheet of map, in his translation of Yi-Jing's (義浄) Nan-hui Chi-kuei Nei-fa Chuan(南海寄帰内法伝). His map contains serious mistakes. Yi-Jing had never been to Palembang and he stopped over Kedah not Aceh. Yi-Jing's real itinerary course was Chaiya（室利仏逝）⇒Mulayu（末羅瑜＝in front of Singapore）⇒Kedah（羯茶）⇒Nicobar Islands (裸人國＝Naked people islands)⇒Tamralipti (Bengal port)⇒on-land route to Nalanda (India). However, Dr. Takakusu had been misguided by Chinese historian, Ma Huan (馬歓). He believed what Ma Huan wrote, the“Ying-Yai Sheng-Lan(瀛涯勝覧)”, in 1416, in which Ma dictated that Ku-kang (旧港=Old Port) is the same country as was formerly called San-fo-chi (三佛斉) , and Ku-kang was also called Palembang (浡淋邦), under suzerainty of Jawa.
「旧港、即古名三佛斉是也。番名曰浡淋邦、属爪哇国所轄。」

The ancient Southeast Asian histories have many ‘missing links’. It is historians’ duty to compensate for ’missing links’. Recently, archaeological research has been developed remarkably, but the integration of historical process is not enough. Many mistakes have been propagated around the world. I want to point out here is that ‘economic geographical’ perspective must be introduced more into the Southeast Asian ancient histories research. Of course, past historians also introduced geographical elements, but so many historians have been dragged to the wrong directions. It is because they had simply accepted the theories of G. Coedès.

So, we should not forget nor neglect to study the outlook of economic development and evolution. Now is the time when the ancient histories of Southeast Asia should be revised and rewritten.

Chapter 1 Funan

1-1 Early history of Funan (扶南)

The kingdom of Funan was first recorded as a tributary state from the Mekong Delta to the Wu Dynasty （呉）in 225 AD. The origin of Funan was supposed to be founded in the first century and was kicked out around 550 from the Mekong Delta by Chenla (真臘) which had been a former subordinate state of Funan. The word of Funan is supposed transcribed by the Chinese officials, from the Khmer language ‘Bhnam or Vnam’ meaning modern language ‘Phnom=mountain’.

In Chinese characters, ‘扶（Fu）’means ‘support’ and ‘南（nan）’means ‘south’, so ‘扶南’means probably ‘Support South（of the Wu Dynasty）’From the beginning, the Wu (呉) Court treated Funan as a friendly state and sent two high ranking officials to Funan, Zhu-Ying（朱應） and Kang-Tai （康泰）. Both left very important information about Funan and neighboring countries.

Kang-Tai had written a legend of the origin of Funan in his report, which is quoted in the Tai Ping Yu Lan, vol.347 （太平御覧、vol. 347）as follows:

According to the legend, a young Brahman (or Kshatria) named ‘Khon-Tien（混填=Kaundinya）’came over to a certain seashore of the Mekong Delta area from Tamralipti (Bengal port) on a large Indian merchant ship. A local princess named Liu-ye (柳葉) tried to take over the ship, then Khon-Tien used the sacred bow given by God and the first arrow had penetrated the queen’s boat. She was strongly panicked and surrendered to Khon-Tien and they married. Then they established a new country ‘Funan’. They got seven children, and distributed them seven small states.

The similar story is recorded in the My-Son (in Champa) inscription dated 658, that Kaundinya, the foremost among Brahmans, brought the spear which he had obtained from Drona’s son Asvatham, the best Brahman. There was a daughter of a king of serpents, called ‘Soma’. She was taken as wife by Kaundinya. Funan people believed their origin was established by Kaundinya and Soma.

In the ancient time, there might be something common legend between Funan and Lin-yi.

According to the Xin Tang Shu, Funan was located 7,000li (2,800km) south of Ri-nan (日南). People are same as Huan Wang (環王＝Lin-yi) with black color skin and have similar custom (Khmer). When the king goes out, he rides on elephant. Paddy can be cropped three times a year. Tax is paid by gold, precious stone and incense. King's palace is rather humble and the royal family had surnamed 'ku-run =古龍’which sounded 'kunrun=崑崙'. The word kunrun (崑崙) is unique in the Chinese and Southeast Asian people do not call themselves ‘Kunrun’ . 'Kurun' means 'King' in Cambodia language, for instance 'Kurun bnam' means 'King of mountain'. The original capital was ‘Temu (特牧城)’, after sudden attack by Chenla, Funan changed the capital to ‘Na-Fu-Na (那弗那)’. Temu must be ‘Angkor Borei’ or ‘Takeo City’, and Na fu Na’ may be Navanakar, Kampot province of Vietnam.

More details of the history of Funan were quoted in the Liang Shu (梁書).

“Hundred years later, King Ban-Kuang (媻況) integrated these small states. He died at the age of 90. His son ‘Ban Ban (媻媻)’ inherited the throne, and he left administration to ‘Great general Fan-(Shi)-Man (范師蔓)’. King Ban Ban died three years later. Then the Funan people all together recommended Fan-(Shi)-Man to succeed the throne. Fan Man was a strong and tactical general. He had conquered neighboring port states, and called himself ‘Great king of Funan’. He made fleet of large rowing boats and invaded major international ports of the region. For instance Qu-du-kun（屈都昆）、Takua Pa (九稚)、Tenasserim (頓遜) and other states, totally more than 10. He expanded territory 5-6 thousand li (2000-2400 km) along the sea shore. Next he intended to conquer the Jin-lin state (金隣国), probably Kanchanaburi (or U Tong), but unfortunately he had a serious illness. He dispatched his son ‘Jin-sheng (金生)’ as a commander.

However, a son of Fan Man’s elder sister, ‘Fan-zhan (范旃)’, at that time a general with 2,000 soldiers killed Jin sheng and usurped kingship. Fan Man’s youngest son named ‘Chang (長)’, who had lived among ordinary people until age 20, organized brave friends and killed Fan-zhan. However general Fan-shou (范壽), a subordinate of Fan-zhan killed Chang and became the King of Funan. In 243, Fan-zhan (范旃) sent his envoy to the Wu Dynasty.”

Funan had been a large maritime state which financially depended on the trade. The nature of the maritime state had not changed after they established Srivijaya based on the maritime trade in the middle of the 7th century.

Of course, in the hinterland of Funan, there was rice-growing area but Funan did not depend upon the tax from their people for the fiscal revenue. Funan government had sufficient income by foreign trade. But some residents had to be navy soldiers in case of war.

1-1-1. On-land trade route from the Lower Burma to Oc Eo.

In the ancient time, at first Funan transported imports from West (mainly India), via the ports of the lower Burma to Oc Eo in the Mekong Delta by three on-land routes.

The first; goods were unloaded at Thaton, Martaban and Moulmein (Mawlamyine), shipped from the Bengal were carried to Tak via the Mae Sot mountain pass and further transported to Sukhothai or Nakhon Sawan. Si Thep was the main intermediary city and transported cargos to Oc Eo port of the Mekong Delta. This route was historically main route from the Lower Burma to Thailand. From Tak, cargos were transported using the Pin River and via Ayutthaya, entered the Menam Chaophraya River, and finally carried to the Gulf of Thailand. Another from Tak to Nakhon Sawan, then commodities were carried to Si Thep. From Si Thep, the cargoes were carried to Oc Eo via the Pa Sak, Chi, Mun and Mekong River.

The Menam Chaophraya River was also available from Nakhon Sawan to Suphanburi (near U Thong) and the Gulf of Thailand.

Tak city was near the Pin River and intermediary exchange point between Burma and Thailand. This Footprint suggests Buddhism came to this area through Burma. Probably the Mon people were populous there and accepted and worshiped Buddhism.

Photo 1:Buddha Footprint of old temple Wat Doi Khoi Kaeo, Tak city.,

Photo 2 Buddha Footprint of Wat Phra Chai Mongkol, Mae Sot, Burma origin

(Route 2)

Tavoy→Three Pagoda Pass→Kanchanaburi→Ratchaburi（Petchaburi）

　　　　　or　　　　Kanchanaburi-- U Thong→Si Thep→Oc Eo

From Tavoy, which is situated in the south of the first route, western commodities were carried to Kanchanaburi, via the Three Pagodas Pass and were easily transported by using river facility to Kanchanaburi. From Kanchanaburi commodities were transported to U Thong, Si Thep then finally to Oc Eo. It was very long way, but in the 2nd to the 4th century it was usual route. Of course, from Kanchanaburi to Ratchaburi route existed. Ratchaburi faces the Gulf of Thailand, and they could use the sea route.

This Three Pagoda Pass was used broadly by the Mon, because the access to Ratchaburi was convenient by using nearby rivers (the Kwai, Maeklong River). Ratchaburi was the trade center of Dvaravati.

I suppose from ‘Kanchanaburi⇒ U Thong ⇒ Si Thep ⇒The Mekong River’ route was used frequently until the end of 4th century.

（Route 3）

Tenasserim→Sing Khon Pass Prachuap Khiri Khan→Gulf of Thailand.

Dun-Sun (頓遜or 典孫) = Tenasserim (Mergui) appears on the Chinese text frequently. Mergui - Tenasserim was very important port, where Great General Fan Man (范蔓) occupied in the 3rd century. The Mon people had used the shortest route to Prachuap Khiri Khan, Hua Hin and Ratchaburi by crossing mountains（Sing Khon Pass） then they used the Gulf of Thailand.

Traditionally Funan had a major port Oc Eo at the Mekong delta. Funan had stocked there the imported commodities from the western countries, such as India, Persia and Arab and shipped them to China. However, after Funan had developed the trans-peninsula route from Takua Pa to Chaiya, this new route became main, since the 4th century. The function of Oc-Eo port had declined gradually.

1―1―2. Trans-peninsula and sea route

On the other hand, new method of transporting of imported west goods had been developed since the middle of the 3rd century. Funan’s new trans-peninsula route was from Takua Pa to Chaiya, at the Bay of Bandon. Takua-pa had been occupied by Great General Fan Man.

In the 4th century, there was the development of the passage to directly crossing the Bay of Bengal from South India and Ceylon by using the westerly monsoon in the summer time and to arrive at the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. However, after the ship arrived at the Malay Peninsula, due to the seasonal head-wind from South, they could not immediately go down the Strait of Malacca. The merchant ships had to wait for the northeast wind to go down the Malacca Straits for nearly 5-6 months at the harbor on the Malay Peninsula. In this case Kedah was the most convenient port, considering sufficient supply of rice and clean water.

Therefore, the officials of Funan and the Indian merchants of the Malay Peninsula developed the land transport method to carry the cargos to the east side ports of Peninsula. At that time, Takua Pa to Chaiya was the shortest and within a territory of the 'Ban-Ban' state. Ban-Ban was governed by the Mon king, but substantially a subordinate state of Funan　after Fan Man’s conquest.

Map1 Takua Pa area (by Cap. Boonyarit of Fine Arts Dep.)

Funan people used Takua Pa to Chaiya route, then by ship to Oc Eo or sometimes directly to China. In front of Takua Pa, there is the ‘Ko Koh Khao’ Island, in which ‘Thung Tuk’ was the international market place, probably called Ko-ku-lo (哥谷羅) by Chinese. On the other hand, the rulers of Kedah independently sent their commodities by using the eastern side ports (for instance Kelantan, Songkhla) to China. At that time Kedah was prosperous by making iron at Sungai Batu.

In case of Ban-Ban, they can use the more convenient route which carries commodities mainly using small rivers from the west coast (Takua Pa) to the east coast, since the middle of the 4th century. There was a route, starting Khao Phra Narai, then use the Khlong Sok River to ‘Ban Ta Khun’ (near Wat Kraison), and then connected the Phum Dung River to arrive at Phun Pin, Kao si Wichai=Sivijaya hill is near Phun Pin, Surat Thani, where are remains of several Hindu and Buddhism temples.

At Khao Si Wichai, a beautiful Vishnu statue was discovered, which might be made by artisans from Angkor Borei, Capital of Funan.

Photo 3 Vishnu image　of the Sri Vijaya Hill (Khao Si Wichai)

Funan developed the new direct tributary route from Chaiya to China.. In this case, Ban-Ban became a tributary state since the first ‘South Song (Lieu=劉）’. It is recorded that Ban-Ban sent its first mission during 424-453.

Funan could not have controlled Kedah due to the long distance, so Kedah enjoyed significant profit by sending tributary missions to China. There were on-land routes from Kedah to Kelantan, Songkhla. Later, Kedah used ’Satun’, a little north port, to unload the goods and carry them to Songkhla. In 441, Kedah sent the first envoy to the first South Song, under the name of Kandari (干陀利). Kandari later changed its name in the 6th to 7th century as ‘Chi-Tu (赤土=Red Earth)’ after merger with Langkasuka.

At first Kedah was recorded as Kola (個羅), Kedah(羯茶), Kadaram, Kidaram(Tamil), Kataha(Sanskrit) etc, but it was recorded as Kin-da-ri (斤陀利) or Kan-da-ri（干陀利） in the first South Song (劉氏宋:420-479). So, Kan-da-ri（干陀利）means Kedah. However, G.Coedès says Kan-da-ri was located in Sumatra, because the majority of historians say so.
The Ming Shi ( 明史, History of Ming Dynasty) says that Kandari was ‘San-fo-chi’. So, G.Coedès might have thought Kandari was ‘San-fo-chi (=Srivijaya)’, and located at Palembang (Sumatra). As the result, many historians also considered 'Kandari was located in Sumatra'. This seems funny story, but many historians believed so and this mistake prevailed in the whole world for nearly one century.

In 441, Kin-da-ri sent the first envoy to the first South Song Court. Before then, Khalatan (呵羅単) had sent missions in 430,433,434,436 and 437. Khalatan looked like the substitute of the Kedah kingdom. Kedah and Khalatan might have had strong connection on the trade. But, later the kingdom of Khalatan might have some independence which also sent the last envoy in 452, and since 531 Khalatan possibly changed its name as ‘Tan-tan (丹丹or 単単)’ which continued until 670. Kelantan had accepted Buddhism very early, probably in the 5th century. In 430 King of Khalatan sent the first mission to the first South Song with an official letter, in which stated that at Khalatan, Buddhism had been prevailing.

At that time in the Malay Peninsula, the Mon people were active in the commerce especially around the Bay of Bandon area, and the west coast. Later the Indian merchants joined them. Funan used the Mons for their business. In the Old Tang Shu describes that all the people study the Sanskrit and worship Buddhism at Ban-Ban.　Chaiya area had been very civilized at that time. In the 7th century, normally reading and writing were privilege for a small group of officials and priests.

1-1-3　The meaning of Indianization

The trade between India (including Bengal) and Burma and Thailand (mainland and the peninsula) is estimated to have begun from the time of the Maurya Dynasty of 3rd-4th BC century. Merchants from India had visited the lower Burma ports, the Malay and Indochina peninsula. Necklace of beads appeared from the 3rd BC century. Furthermore, not only trade purpose, Indian migrants came to the Malay Peninsula and the Sumatra Island to look for gold and tin mine. The Indian merchants brought trade goods such as cotton clothes, beads and pottery, to exchange with food, fragrant woods, gold etc. At the same time, they accompanied Brahman and Buddhist monks, so Hinduism and Buddhism penetrated into these regions. Some Indian people settled in Thailand and merged with local people gradually. Indian people also brought the technology of agriculture and metal working to the local people.

The Indian merchants bought silk, craftworks from China and spice and incense in the Southeast Asia and got a big profit by re-exporting them to the Roman Empire, Egypt, and East Africa.

India got huge gold coins from Rome and the currency changed from ‘the silver standard to the gold standard’ system, thus the demand for gold increased rapidly in India.

Therefore, Indian's gold search fever happened and many Indian adventurers went to Suwarnadvipa (Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula). ‘Suwarnadvipa’ means the golden country, with both sides water. About Suwarnadvipa, many scholars of history understand simply as only ‘island or Sumatra’.

‘The silk load by the seaway’ was much more efficient than so-called ‘the silk load on- land’ which depends on the long land route to China. The Indian, Arab and Persian merchants found the sea-route was much easier and more efficient and profitable than transportation with a long caravan of camels.

Also, the Indian merchants were strong in the fellowship sentiment and they decided many important matters by their meeting. This is the same in case of Funan.

Funan’s Great General ‘Fan Man’ was recommended by the people to take the throne of Funan after the previous king’s death. Another example was Chiao Chen-Ju (the 2nd Kaundinya, 僑陳如), who was a Brahman staying at Ban-Ban. Amid the political confusion in Funan, he was welcomed by the Funan people and was recommended to be the king of them. He introduced many advanced Indian systems to Funan and established the base of development.

There remains scarce example of the inscriptions of Funan. The reason is perhaps they had not habitude to emphasize the achievements of specific individual.

In the Nan-Ji Shu (南斉書), 　King Kaundinya Jayavarman (478-514) sent his envoy to the South Ji (南斉) Dynasty in 484, the ambassador, an Indian Brahman named Nagasena（那伽仙） explained about the religious situation of Funan.

He explained to the emperor that in Funan the people worshiped ‘Mahesvara (Siva)’, and believed that God would come down on the top of the ‘sacred mountain Meru’and people believed in this God, where the climate was always good, and the peaceful life was guaranteed. So, Hinduism was deeply believed in Cambodia.

Therefore, the king found a suitable sacred mountain every time he transferred his capital. In the Angkor times, the king constructed a high tower on the pyramid, he declared there as Meru mountain and the people worshipped it as ‘the center axis’ of the universe. It seems that Angkor Borei (Phnom Da) was the original metropolis, judging from the numerous ruins and the geographical conditions. Vishnu images were spread from Angkor Borei to the Bay of Bandon and other regions.

Worship of the ancestral spirit and animism was a pre-Hindu practice of the people of South East Asia. Later Indian migrants brought worship of Hinduism and deified kings. The rulers willingly accepted Hinduism. From migrated Indian Brahman and Kshatria class, who came into this area as the leaders of Indian merchants, and introduced Hinduism first and often married daughters of local rulers. Buddhism came later and penetrated mainly among the Mon people.

It will be permitted to say that the 'Meru mountain's worship was brought into Funan as Siva belief from the beginning, and the ancestor-worship and the Hinduism seem to be connected among the common people.

On the other hand, for Funan, the Mahayana Buddhism was introduced among the leaders and the popularization of the Buddhism was beginning in the 4th century. Mahayana Buddhism was introduced from Ban-Ban to Funan. Ban-Ban was the subordinate state of Funan since the 3rd century after the conquest of General Fan Man. The communication between the both states were quite usual and frequent, so Buddhism was introduced into Funan gradually.

The penetration of Buddhism to the Malay Peninsula was very early. There are many primitive ‘Buddha Footprints’ in the Peninsula. From Chumpon, Takua Pa, Krabi, Trang, Chaiya and Nakon si Thammarat etc. The ancient and primitive type Buddha Footprints were just directly chiseled on natural rock.

Photo4 Buddha Footprints at Wat Kraison (in the middle of Takua Pa and Chaiya)

In this area, Buddha Footprints were introduced by Indian Buddhist monks. Before the 2nd century the Buddha images were not popular even in India, or prohibited to make the image of Buddha, so Buddhist monks in the Malay Peninsula made Buddha Footprints for worship.

Trade relation between Ban-Ban (under Funan）and Indian traders was strengthened since the 3rd century. Owing to the international trade, Ban-Ban had been opened earlier and many Indians came in. So, Ban-Ban was much advanced as for the acceptance of Buddhism. On the other hand, Buddhism in Funan was stimulated by the Buddhism heat in China. So, leaders of Funan were affected from both sides, Ban-Ban and China. In Ban-Ban, there were more than ten Buddhism temples and more than 1,000 monks who were studying Buddhism. Once the leaders of Funan knew Buddhism, many of them were attracted by the depth of the philosophy of Buddhism and became devotees of Buddhism. Later Mahayana Buddhism became the ‘state religion’ of Srivijaya group. The last king of Funan, Rudravarman was known as a Buddhist. However, Chenla kings believed in Sivaism and hated Buddhism as Yi-Jing wrote.

Later, in Srivijaya regime, Mahayana Buddhism became popular in the states Srivijaya dominated. The typical example was the Śailendra kingdom in the central Jawa where the Borobudur temple was built which is the biggest Mahayana temple in the world. Jambi also constructed huge Mahayana Buddhism complex, even now ‘Muaro Jambi’ remains outside of Jambi city.

1-2　Funan regime　

In the 3rd century, Great General Fan Man was a superior strategist of genius and made the plan to monopolize procurement of the western goods, then he organized the navy which consists of large rowing boats to secure a trade route for Funan, and captured several main trade ports one after another and put them under Funan’s control.

King Fan-shou（范尋） sent mission to the Western Jin's, Emperor Wu-di's first year ( 265 ).After that, King Fan-shou had continued sending 4 envoys to the Western Jin until 287. There is a record that in 357 King Chu Chan-Tan （竺旃檀）sent tribute of elephants to Emperor Bok (穆帝) to the Eastern Jin Dynasty. The Emperor, at that time was 15 years old, frightened by elephant and showed straight uncomfortable feeling and ordered the envoy not to bring such an animal again because they were astonishing people and need so much attention to breed. (梁書、The Liang Shu)

King Chu (竺) means an Indian origin, Chan-Tan (旃檀) means ‘Chandana’. After this trouble, Funan could not have sent the mission for a long time. The next chance was in 389. After this, Funan sent next envoy in 434 to the South (Lieu) Song Dynasty.

On the other hand, Lin-yi had sent 7 envoys in the 4th century. As the importer of the western goods Funan’s position was superior to Lin-yi’s, but Funan could not have sent mission to China. During that time, it is said there was severe political confusion in Funan. So, Funan rulers had arranged to send mission from Ban-Ban at the same time, they invited Chiao Chen-Ju (the 2nd Kaundinya, 僑陳如) as their king.

According to Chinese records Sānguó zhì 三國志 (Records of the Three Kingdoms) completed in 289 by Chen Shou 陳壽 (233–297), two envoys from Funan arrived at the office of Lu Dai （呂岱）, governor in the southern Chinese kingdom of Wú (吳): the first embassy arrived between 225 and 230, the second in the year 243.

Later sources such as the Liang Shu 梁書 ( Liang History) compiled by Yao Cha 姚察 (533–606) and Yao Silian 姚思廉 (~ 637), completed in 636, says that in the 3rd century, the mission of Chinese envoys Kang-Tai （康泰） and Zhu-Ying （朱應） from the Wu Dynasty were sent to Funan.

After returning, Kang Tai wrote two reports, ‘Foreign Aspect(外国伝)’ and the ‘Funan Local Custom(扶南土俗)' after returning home and the original texts were lost, but, some have been quoted in the ‘Tai Ping Yu Lan（太平御覧）’ (compiled by Lee Feng李昉, of the Northern Song Dynasty, compiled around 980). In Volume 787, he reported about Zhu Bo (諸薄=Jawa）and we can know the various situations of its neighboring states.

1-2-1 East-West trade

The Indian merchants traded by using the west ports such as Thaton, Thavoy, Tenasserim, Takua Pa, Krabi and Kedah. Kedah had been also a big city of its iron products since BC 500. Recently at ‘Sungai Batu’, near Bujan Valley, Kedah city, large remains of iron-making facilities have been found and excavation working is now going.

The main Indian side port was Tamralipiti of Bengal. In the winter time, they came down from the Bengal area and their main commodities were cotton cloth and beads. The Persian merchants, too, came to the ports of Burma. They traded mainly with the Mon people and local Indian merchants. Some times Persian and Arab merchants directly visited China with tribute.

In the mainland of Thailand, the Mon people had lived and were engaged in commerce, rice farming, making bronze, iron and salt. Their activities were spread into the Isaan area (North-eastern Thailand) and Laos. They, at first accepted Hinduism then Buddhism. All over the inner land, there remains many old Buddha Footprints as the symbol of Buddhism worship.

Some commercial cities had existed since the Bronze Age. Along the trade routes and the network of salt, iron, Dongson bronze drums existed.

The group of Indian merchants settled in the cities and villages. With advanced technology and knowledge, those Indian people taught the residents how to cultivate rice and make metal tools, iron making method and so on. With passing through the time, Indian became rulers in the cities. The examples were U Thong and Si Thep (Sri Deva), where they first introduced Hinduism and later Buddhism.

1-2-2. Si Thep

Si Thep used to be called ‘Sri Deva’ or ‘Srideb’ meaning of the ‘Shrine city’, where was many Hindu shrines and the images of Hindu Gods, such as Surya, Krishna, Vishnu and Siva.

The transportation of commodities was used various rivers which flows nearby Si Thep. The Pasak river flows Lopburi and empties into the Gulf of Thailand via Ayutthaya. Also, from Si Thep they can connect with the Mekong River via the ‘Chi’ and ‘Mun River’. The city was located at the most important point of the traffic. The early rulers of Si Thep believed in Hinduism. The local residents were mostly the Mon people, who at first accepted Hinduism, but later, probably since the 9th century changed to Mahayana Buddhism. Si Thep was a very big city enclosed in moat.. There are Buddhist temple ruins of the Dvaravati style too, and a huge ‘Dharma-cakra’ is placed in the center of the city.

Photo5 ‘Dharma-cakra’ in the Si Thep Historical Park

In the northeast Thailand iron manufacturing and salt making were popular industries. Generally speaking the northeast area in Thailand (now called Isaan) had been very prosperous compared with south of the Dangrek Mountains, today’s Cambodia.

Si Thep became the largest city in this area, of which rulers were Funan people, and they developed agriculture with large population of farmers. Later the rulers organized big army.

However, this on-land trade route of the East-West declined after the 4th century, because Funan developed the sea-time route between Ban Ban and of Funan.

In the 6 th century, the rulers of Si Thep began attacking to the south area, the center of Funan, with large army and occupied Funan. They established ‘Chenla Kingdom’.

In this area, Buddha Footprints were introduced by Indian Busshist monks. Before the 2nd century the Buddha images were not popular even in India, or prohibited to make the image of Buddha, so Buddhist monks in the Malay Peninsula made Buddha Footprints for worship.

Trade relation between Ban-Ban (under Funan）and Indian traders was strengthened since the 3rd century.Owing to the international trade, Ban-Ban had been opened earlier and many Indians came in. So, Ban-Ban was much advanced as for the acceptance of Buddhism. On the other hand, Buddhism in Funan was stimulated by the Buddhism heat in China. So, leaders of Funan were affected from both sides, Ban-Ban and China. In Ban-Ban, there were more than ten Buddhism temples and more than 1,000 monks who were studying Buddhism in the territory. Once the leaders of Funan knew Buddhism, many of them were attracted by the depth of the philosophy of Buddhism and became devotees of Buddhism. Later Mahayana Buddhism became the ‘state religion’ of Srivijaya group. The last king of Funan, Rudravarman was known as a Buddhist. However, Chenla kings believed in Sivaism and hated Buddhism as Yi-Jing wrote.

1-2　Funan regime　

King Fan-shou（范尋） sent mission to the Western Jin's, Emperor Wu-di's first year ( 265 ).After that, King Fan-shou had continued sending 4 envoys to the Western Jin until 287. There is a record that in 357 King Chu Chan-Tan （竺旃檀）sent tribute of elephants to Emperor Bok (穆帝) to the Eastern Jin Dynasty.The Emperor, at that time was 15 years old, frightened by elephant and showed straight uncomfortable feeling and ordered the envoy not to bring such an animal again because they were astonishing people and need so much attention to breed. (梁書、The Liang Shu)

1-2-1 East-West trade

The main Indian side port was Tamralipiti of Bengal. In the winter time, they came down from the Bengal area and their main commodities were cotton cloth and beads. The Persian merchants, too, came to the ports of Burma. They traded mainly with the Mon people and local Indian merchants. The Persian merchants some times directly visited China with tribute.

Some commercial cities had existed since the Bronze Age. Along the trade routes and the network of salt, iron, Dongson bronze drums existed. The major residents were the Mon speaking people and some were Khmer.

1-2-2. Si Thep

Si Thep used to be called ‘Sri Deva’ or ‘Srideb’ meaning of the ‘Shrine city’, where was many Hindu shrines and the images of Hindu Gods, such as Surya, Krishna, Vishnu and Siva.

Si Thep was a very big city enclosed in moat.. There are Buddhist temple ruins of the Dvaravati style too, and a huge ‘Dharma-cakra’ is placed in the center of the city.

Photo5 ‘Dharma-cakra’ in the Si Thep Historical Park

Si Thep became the largest city in this area, of which rulers were Funan people, and they developed agriculture with large population of farmers. Later the rulers organized big army.

However, this on-land trade route of the East-West declined after the 4 th century, because Funan developed the mari-time route between Ban Ban and of Funan.

In the 6 th century, the rulers of Si Thep began attacking to the south area, the center of Funan, with large army and occupied Funan. They established ‘Chenla Kingdom’.

Chapter 2 Shi-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya)

As above mentioned, Shi-li-fo-shi was located in the Malay Peninsula Chaiya was its capital and the main port.

Furthermore few historians identified the exact location of ‘Luo-Yue (羅越)’ and ‘Ko-ku-lo (哥谷羅)’. They say Luo-Yue was Johore, near Singapore, however Luo-Yue is located at the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. Ko-ku-lo is a major port of the west coast of Peninsula and as Jia-Dan (賈耽) says “located at north of Kedah”. Ko-ku-lo is without doubt Kho Khao Island, outer port of Takua Pa.

In case of Luo-Yue, most historians had misunderstood the marine-route of Jia-Dan, quoted in the Xin Tang Shu, so they had no other choice than Johore. However, in the Tang times Johore was not so popular port. The Xin Tang Shu writes correctly about this matter.

2-1 Marine-route of Jia-Dan(賈耽)

The Xin Tang Shu has the geographical articles in which Jia-Dan’s sea route map is quoted. Jia-Dan was the prime minister of the Tang Court around 800.

”After five days journey from ‘the Con Dao Island’, one reaches a strait which the barbarians call ‘Chi (質)’, and which is 100 li from south to north. On its northern shore is the kingdom of Luo-Yue, on its southern shore the kingdom of Fo-shi (Srivijaya). Some four or five days’ journey over the water to the eastward of Fo-shi is the kingdom of ‘Kha-ling (訶陵)’, the largest island in the south. Then, emerging from the strait, in three days one reaches the kingdom of ‘Ko-ko-seng-chih(葛葛僧祇)’, which is situated on another island off the north-west corner of Fo-shi. The inhabitants are mostly pirates. Sailors on junks go in dread of them. On the northern shore of the strait is the kingdom of Ko-lo(箇羅=Kedah). To the west of ‘Ko-lo’ is the kingdom of ‘Ko-ku-lo (哥谷羅)’. The residents are violent, so sailors are afraid. The west(north) of Kedah is ‘Ko-ku-lo’. Along‘Ko-ko-seng-chih’after 4-5 days journey, the ship arrive to the north, they arrive ‘Sheng Deng Zhou (勝鄧洲).“

Ko-ko-seng-chih and Sheng deng zhou are not identified, but possibly a part of the north Sumatra, near Aceh. From Sheng Deng Zhou to the Nicobar Islands (婆露國), it takes 5 days. From where to Sri Lanka　(師子國) it takes 10 days.

「（到軍突弄山。）又五日行至海硤、蕃人謂之「質」、南北百里、北岸則羅越国、南岸則佛逝国、佛逝国東水行四五日、至訶陵国、南中洲之最大者。又西出硤、三日至葛葛僧祇國、在佛逝西北隅之別島、國人多鈔暴、乗舶者畏憚之。其北岸箇羅国。箇羅西則哥谷羅國。又従葛葛僧祇四五日行、至勝鄧洲。又西五日行，至婆露國。又六日行，至婆國伽藍洲。又北四日行，至師子國.

In this case, ‘Chi (質)’ is generally interpreted ‘selat’(‘strait’in Malay language), and supposed to be the Singapore Strait. However, the Singapore Strait is too narrow, less than 10 km width. 100li means about 40 kilometers. Furthermore ‘selat’ has three meanings, ‘strait’ ‘narrow’ and ‘sound (bay)’. But in this case, selat is not correct reading, ‘Chi’ might be a proper name of a certain place. I understand Chi means a 'S(r)i Surat'=Surat Thani, the Bay of Bandon, of which mouth is about 40 kilometers from north to south.

If Chi is identified as the Singapore Strait (硤), the location of Luo-Yue (羅越) must be Johore at the south end of the Malay Peninsula. And the location of ‘Shih-li-fo-shi’supposed be the Riau Islands far from Sumatra, but many historians ignored actual distance between Sumatra and the Riau Islands. This hypothesis is a convenient story for ‘Palembang theory’. Luo-Yue cannot be Johore. In the Tang times, Johore was not developed so much as to be an emporium for the neighboring states.

Jia-Dan says from Chi (質), one can go to Kha-ling (訶陵国) after 4-5 days journey. In this case, Kha-ling means the middle of the Malay Peninsula, probably ‘Sathing Phra’, a major port of Srivijaya. Then one goes down further and crosses the Singapore Strait to the west, within three days, one can arrive at ‘Ko-ko-seng-chih(葛葛僧祇國)’, which is unidentified.

Normally ‘Kha-ling‘ was located in the Jawa island. But, since the middle of the 8th century to the 9th century, Kha-ling had represented the ‘whole Srivijaya’ as the Sailendra kingdom. Apparently, officials of the Tang Court acknowledged that a part of the Malay Peninsula belonged to Kha-ling, which was used as the shipping port to Tang. Such view was inherited by the writers of the Xin Tang-Shu in the Song times.

The Tang Court probably considered the territory of Shih-li-fo-shi covered from a part of the Malay Peninsula including Kedah to the southern part of Sumatra such as Mulayu, Jambi and Palembang.

Ko-ku-lo (哥谷羅) is not formally identified yet, but I suppose it means the Kho Khao Island. The Kho Khao Island is located just in front of Takua Pa and its ‘Thung Tuk’ was the market place for international merchants.

The position of Luo-Yue (羅越) should be northern part of the Peninsula. Furthermore the residents in Luo-Yue were similar to Dvaravati people (‘Mon tribe’), so Luo-Yue cannot be Johore.

There is another description in the Xin Tang-Shu, “The northward from Luo-Yue is 5,000 li sea water, and the south-west is Ko-ku-lo (哥谷羅)”. According to ‘the Jia-Dan’s explanation of the map, Lou-Yue(羅越)　is located at northern direction of Ko-ku-lo (哥谷羅)=Ko Koh Khao Island. So, Johore is completely the wrong direction.

The Xin Tang-Shu says that traders from various directions gather around Lou-Yue. The customs of the resident of Lou-Yue are same as those of Dvaravati (the Mons). Every year, the merchant-ship of Lou-Yue comes to Canton and reports to the local officials. So, I consider that the location of Lou-Yue was near the mainland of Thailand and the upper north of the Malay Peninsula, near Ratchaburi to Tenasserim (Burma).

「羅越者北距海5,000里西南哥谷羅商賈往来所湊集俗與堕和羅底同歳乗舶至広州、州必以聞。」

As the conclusion, Jia-Dan’s itinerary map is not strict, so flexible interpretation by readers is needed. However many historians have been in haste to connect everything to Palembang. I understand ‘Chi’s the proper name of location, near the Bay of Bandon. It is probably ‘Si Surat=Surat Thani’.As the identification of Luo-Yue, ‘Ratburi (Ratchaburi)’ may be the proper location. Ratburi has huge historical remains, and is considered once big emporium which had port facilities on the both sides on the west coast (Burma side) and on the east coast, facing the Gulf of Thailand.

Map3　Jia　Dan’s Sea route from Southeast Asia to Ceylon.

G. Coedès had ‘good’ intention to discuss the Srivijaya history from the perspective of East-West trade history, but he put the midpoint of East-West trade at the ‘Sunda Strait’. The Jawa Island is not adequate to be intermediary to trade with China. The Malay Peninsula was more convenient as intermediary ports, by using the ‘trans-peninsula’ route.

2-2 Java (闍婆) often meant the Malay Peninsula before the Song times

In the early 5th century, a prominent Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Xian (法顕) also recorded that after he had shipped from Ceylon to China, the tempest continued day and night. After thirteen day's torture, the ship was carried to an island, where they repaired the leak, the ship started again to the eastern direction.

After nine to ten days they arrived at ‘Yaba-dvipa (耶馬提).’　Many historians consider ‘Yaba-dvipa’ is the Jawa Island or Sumatra. However, in this case, ships could not go down the Malacca Straits due to the summer time head wind (monsoon) from south to north. So, the merchant ships must have waited for the north-east wind until winter for nearly half of a year. Fa Xian wrote, he waited at Yaba-dvipa for five months. It was unavoidable waste of time. In this case Yaba-dvipa was the Malay Peninsula, probably Kedah. The word ‘Java (闍婆)’ written in the Tang text means mostly the Malay Peninsula.

“The Song Shu (宋書)”, history of first South Song (420-479) writes “呵羅單國治闍婆洲． This means that Kalatan (呵羅単) governs ‘Jawa’, but Kalatan was located in the Malay Peninsula, today’s Kelantan. So, Khalatan state could not have governed the Jawa Island. In Khalatan, Buddhism was flourishing according to the “Song Shu”. A classic ‘Buddha footprint’ carved on a natural large stone exists at Buchon, Kota Bharu city and smaller 4 primitive Buddha Footprints exist at Bukit Mara.

Photo 7 A classic giant ‘Buddha footprint’ at Kelantan,the 5th century

There are many primitive Buddha Footprints in Thailand, especially Peninsula area, Takua Pa, Krabi, Chiya etc. However, in Indonesia there is no Buddha Footprints except at the Karimun Island in front of Singapore. In the ancient time, the Karimun Island provided intermediary port facility for foreign ships and some Indian merchants (Buddhists) might have lived there, where might be the center of ‘Old Mulayu’.

2-3 Short History of Srivijaya

After the death of Buddhist King Rudravarman around 530, the central (or southern) Funan rulers were kicked out from the Mekong Delta area by northern family of Funan (Chenla)　and they moved to Ban Ban.

The Ban-Ban state had been a subordinate state of Funan since the 3rd century, after Great General Fan Man　(later king of Funan) had occupied there. Funan had used Ban-Ban as the trade route of the western commodities imported at Takua Pa, on the west coast and transported them to the east coast, Chaiya. Funan rulers continued the tribute mission to Tang from Chaiya. Moreover, Funan had used Ban-Ban as its substitute to tribute to Tang since 5th century. So, Funan had two trade routes with China, one is under the name of Funan, and another is under the name of Ban-Ban.

According to the ‘Tong Dian(=通典), compiled by Du You (杜祐）in 801, Ban-Ban (媻媻 or盤盤) had weak army and their arrow-head is equipped with ‘stone’, even though the head of lance is made of iron sword. Ban-Ban had been probably forced by Funan to have weak military. At Ban-Ban, Buddhism was popular and there were more than 1,000 monks with 10 temples for the ordinary monks and one upper class temple for senior (advanced) monks. Furthermore, the common people were studying the Sanskrit language.

Ban-Ban's economic and strategic value was so great, so Funan had changed the nature of Ban-Ban as its subordinate state for the international trade state.
Even though Funan had lost its base at the Mekong Delta in the middle of the 6th century, the Xin Tang Shu says that Funan sent missions two times, in 'Wu-Di (618-26) and Zhen-Guan (627-49) times. Funan presented two white head men, who were captured at the west border of Funan.　”武德、貞觀時，再入朝，又獻白頭人二．”　Furthermore, according to the” Ce-fu Yuan-Gui (冊府元亀) in 643, the king of Lin-yi (Champa) asked the Emperor for assistance to stop the attack from Funan.
After appeal of Lin-yi, Funan kept silence.

Funan was preparing the next step to form Shi-li-fo shi (Srivijaya). Funan merged Chi-tu (赤土) probably early 7th century. Then Funan changed its name as Shi-li-fo-shi (室利佛逝）, and sent its first ambassador to Tang in 670. Actually, Funan was alive and active after they had been expelled by Chenla 100 years before and established a new state Shi-li-fo-shi (室利佛逝). However, many historians have not recognized this fact, but considered the Xin Tang Shu is mistaken and unreliable.

Before the Tang times, after 530, Funan sent tributary missions to the Liang (梁) Dynasty in 535,543 and to the Chen (陳) Dynasty in 559, 572 and 588. Funan had apparently survived out of the Mekong delta.

After setting up the headquarters at the Bay of Bandon, Funan rulers had continued international trade with China. Funan had the trade strategy to monopolize the tributary mission to China, and integrated the Malay Peninsula at first.

M. Vickery says Chenla (north) merged Funan (south) peacefully in Cambodia. He says there is the inscription K53 Inscription (667), which tells there was kings minister's family which had worked for Funan and Chenla Dynasty for 4-5 generations (Vickery, Toyo, p 41). Of course there might be such a case, but majority of rulers of Funan escaped to Ban-Ban beforehand.

There is the 'Han-Chey' inscription, at Kompong Cham, which tells that Bhavavarman after chasing the enemy (Funan) princes and cruelly killed them all. After the victory, he sent the group of musicians advocating the victory. Without doubt, there existed battle between Chenla and Funan. The two inscriptions on the inner door pillars of the old brick sanctuary at Han-Chey, just above Kompong Cham on the Mekong, were discovered. Certainly, some of the royal family members of Funan were killed brutally by Chenla.

Funan of the Mekong area once disappeared at the middle of the 6th century, the neighboring states simultaneously started sending tributary missions to China. Because the controlling power of Funan suddenly diminished, and the unexpected freedom was given to Langkasuka, Dvaravati, Kandari and Chi-tu.

Exiled Funan (Ban-Ban) merged Chi-tu (赤土=Red Earth）probably before the middle of the 7th century, and established a new polity Shi-li-fo-shi（室利佛逝）. Chi-tu was former Kan-da-ri (干陀利=Kedah), of which major ports were Kedah (West coast) and Songkhla (East coast) in both sides of Malay Peninsula.

Shi-li-fo-shi is explained in the Xin Tang Shu that East-West, width is 1000li, and length from North to South is 4000 li. Number of their states (subordinate) is 14. The country is divided by 2 (二國分総) to govern Shi-li-fo-shi. Shi-li-fo-shi was a long narrow country, so probably the east side (facing the Gulf of Thailand) was governed by Chaiya, and the west side was governed by Kedah, which faces the Straits of Malacca.

Srivijaya wanted to control the whole Malacca Straits and sent navy to Mulayu, Jambi, Palembang and the Bangka Island. In 683, Srivijaya occupied Palembang and left there the ‘Kedukan Bukit’ inscription. In 686, Srivijaya gathered the fleet at the Bangka Island, and started invasion to the Kha-ling (訶陵) kingdom in the central Jawa. The commander was Dapunta Selendra (Śailendra), and they easily defeated Kha-ling, the capital was Pekalongan. The commander left one simple inscription at Sojometo village. In this time, the territory of Srivijaya became the largest in its history.

Srivijaya established the ‘Śailendra kingdom’ in the central Jawa, however they had not destroyed the ‘Old Kha-ling(Sanjaya) kingdom. They co-existed in the central Jawa. Śailendra was probably in charge of navy and trade, and Sanjaya was in charge of domestic administration. Śailendra sent the tributary mission in 768 to Tang, under the name of ‘Kha-ling (訶陵)’. Why Srivijaya took such action? It is because Srivijaya was afraid of the Tang Court regulation which prohibited the conflict of among the vassal states. So, Sailendra had to use the name of ‘Kha-ling’ to conceal the fact of conquering Sanjaya (old Kha-ling).

2-3-1 Tributary states to China, around the Malay Peninsula)
Paul Wheatley says:"On the dissolution of the Funanese empire, its successor, Chenla, possibly because of its continental origin, failed to consolidate its supremacy over the Malay Peninsula, whereupon the former dependencies in that region hastened to establish their autonomy by dispatching embassies to the Imperial Court of China". (P. Wheatley, p 289).

Indeed some new states came up to China, after the middle of the 6th century, however every state failed to 'establish their autonomy'. Chenla could not dominate the sea-faring, so they could not send envoys by sea for long time.
P. Wheatley picks up some examples:
"At present there are notices of only four kingdoms. Judging by the records still extant it is probable that the Sui (隋）annalist was here referring to P'an-p'an (Ban-Ban), Ch'ih-t'u (Chi-tu), Tan-tan(Khalatan) and Ko-lo(Kedah)” (P. Wheatley, p 289).

‘Ban-Ban’ was substantially, occupied by exiled Funan since the 3rd century.
P.Wheatley forgets two more kingdoms, Langkasuka（狼牙須国） and Dvaravati (堕和羅鉢底）.

①　Dvaravati (堕和羅鉢底）:583(頭和）,627-49,638, 640, 643, 649,　

②　Tan-Tan(丹丹）: 535, 571, 581, 585, 616 ,666(単単）, 670.

③　　Chi-tu (赤土）：608, 609, 610.
Kandari (干陀利）: 441, 455, 472, 502, 518, 520, 563⇒later became Chi-tu..

④　　Langkasuka（狼牙須国）:515, 523, 531, 568.⇒Later, merged with Kandari

⑤　Ban-Ban (盤盤）：423-53, 455, 457-64, 527, 529, 532, 534, 542, 551, 571, 584, 616, 633, 635, 641, 648, 650-55.
later Shi-li-fo-shi (室利佛逝)：670-673, 701, 716, 724, 727, 741.

Chi-tu is the former Kandari (Kedah) and which probably merged Langkasuka.

Shi-li-fo-shi is the former Ban-Ban and merged Chi-tu and Tan-Tan. After 670, Shi-li-fo-shi became the sole country sending envoys to Tang from the Malay Peninsula.

2-3-2　Langkasuka (狼牙須国)

Langkasuka country (currently Nakhon-Si-Thammarat) first made tribute in 515, 523 and 531 and 568. Langkasuka got the information of Funan’s inner conflict over the succession trouble. They started sending mission in 515, total 4times. (Rudravarman’s usurpation, in 514). Lankasuka was Ban-Ban's neighbor, so they got early information. of Funan's trouble and took the quick action to send an envoy to China.

Later Langkasuka might have been merged with Kandari (干陀利）and formed 'Chi-tu'.

The contemporary theory that Langkasuka was Pattani, is an obvious mistake. Without doubt, Langkasuka was today's Nakhon Si Thammarat. The evidence is the Sui Shu which records:
The Sui Emperor, Yang-di (煬帝）sent 'Chan-Jun (常駿）as a special envoy to ‘Red Earth (Chi-Tu)’, and he reported that after he passed the Con Dao Island, 2 days later he saw a high mountain toward the west direction. It is a land-mark of Langkasuka, behind Nakhon Si Thammarat. There is Mt.(Khao) Luang (1820m), which is the highest mountain in the region. Unfortunately, at Pattani there is no mountain at all.
Curiously, many Thailand's modern historians believe that Pattani is Langkasuka. The western historians made up such a story and many Thai people still believe it.

The“Zhu-fan-zhi（諸蕃志）” is often referred to as the reason of Langkasuka's Pattani theory. But the author Chao Ju Kua (趙如适) did not use the same script as the Sui Shu. The Sui Shu 's Lankasuka is 狼牙須国、but the Zhu-fan-zhi's Lankasuka is 凌牙斯加. Furthermore，in the Zhu-fan-zhi, Pattani is quoted as ‘抜沓（Pa-Ta)’.

The Liang Shi says that Langkasuka opened the country in the 2nd century. But the successor of the king was weak, so the strong royal family succeeded the throne.　
國人說，立國以來四百餘年，後嗣衰弱，王族有賢者，國人歸之
Possibly Langkasuka started the foreign trade in the 2nd century, and its ports for imports were Krabi, Phuket and Trang at the west coast of the Malay Peninsula.

2-3-2 Dvaravati（堕和羅鉢底）)

The Mon people had founded their own kingdom around the Lower Burma and the inner Thailand and Peninsula, called Dun-Sun (頓遜=Tenasserim), Lou-Yue (羅越) and Dvaravati (投和、獨和羅、堕和羅鉢底). Generally speaking they were rather independent from the Funanese direct rule.

In the kingdom of Dvaravati, Thaton was an important seaport on the Gulf of Martaban, for trade with India and Sri Lanka, and Tenasserim was one of major ports of the Mon people (Dvaravati). Around the 6th and the 7th century, several Mon states seem to have sent missions to China.

According to the Chinese Chronicles, Tou-wa（投和）sent its envoy to the Chen (陳) Dynasty in 583, and Ratchaburi（加羅舎分）sent the missions to Sui (隋) in 608 and Tang in 662. Dvaravati (堕和羅、獨和羅、堕和羅鉢底) appeared in 627, 638, 640, 643 and 649. However, they stopped sending mission after the establishment of Shi-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya) before 670.
After Great General Fan Man of Funan had captured these ports first in the 3rd century and Funan had dominated the region, but probably given some freedom for non-official trade with China.From the 3rd century, Dun-Sun (頓遜=Tenasserim) seems to be the one big territory which extends over the side of the Gulf of Thailand from Burma. Dun-Sun means ‘five small kingdoms’ in the old Mon language. Prachoup Kiri Khan, Petchaburi, Ratchaburi, Nakhon Pathom and Lopburi in Thailand and the lower Burma had been tightly connected. They established a unique style of the ‘Dvaravati culture’ which expanded into the mainland of Thailand, and arrived at Si Thep, Lamphun and Chiang Mai area. Many kinds of terracotta images are left and known as the symbol of the Dvaravati culture largely different from those of Funan and Khmer.

Photo 7 Terracotta images of the Mon people

A lot of relics of those terracotta images were discovered from the Khu Bua ruins in the suburbs of Ratchaburi. They were discovered all over Thailand.

After 649, the Mon people survived, but had not sent the official tributary mission and independently traded with Chinese merchant at Canton by commercial basis. Later Dvaravati had built a strong kingdom in Hariphunchai, Lamphun in the northern part of Thailand. The Haripunchai kingdom was established around 750, and most of the central and northern Thailand had been under the rule of various Mon’s city states, which had been eclipsed by the Angkor Dynasty step by step and in 1292 Hariphunchai was occupied by Mangrai of the Thai kingdom of Lanna.

The Mon people was wide spreading over present Thailand. Everywhere we can find the city or town named ‘xx buri’. ‘Buri’ means ‘City or Town ‘in the Mon word. Specifically, the role of the Mons was very wide in agriculture, commerce and manufacturing. They accepted since the early stage, Hinduism and Buddhism and made Buddha Footprint at their temples.

Photo 8 Buddha Footprint at Korat temple (by T. Suzuki)

2-3-3 Kandari (干陀利）

Kedah had been convenient port to import western goods. So, Kedah started the tributary trade since the 5th century. In this case Kedah state used the port on the east coast, for instance Songkhla and Kelantan.　Kedah was called Kandari

The Ming Shi ( 明史）says that the old name of San fo chi is Kandari.　明史　「三佛斉，古名干陀利。」
This short sentence means "San fo-chi was Kandari (Kedah) ". But many historians (followers of G.Coedès) consider that San-fo-chi is Srivijaya, so Kandari was located in Sumatra (Palembang). However, Kandari was Kedah. They have made mistake here.

In the San-fo-chi time, the negotiator with the west countries was Kedah, so Kedah had been known as San-fo-chi for foreign countries, especially for Arab and Chola (Tamil country, south India).

As above, the Kedah lines had continued the tributary missions from Kalatan, Kandari and Chi-tu. And finally, this export line was absorbed to Srivijaya before 670.

2-3-4 Chi-tu=赤土国

Funan (Bang Bang) merged with Chi-tu（赤土国）in the first half of the 7th century. Before that, Chi-tu had been the largest state which sent tributary mission to the Sui Dynasty.

According to the Sui-Shu, Sui received Chi-tu envoys three times in 608, 609 and 610. The Emperor ‘Yang-di (煬帝）’ sent an ambassador Chang-Jun（常駿） to Chi-tu. The real capital of Chi-tu was probably Kedah and on the east coast sub-capital was Songkhla (僧祇城). The ambassador Chang-Jun recorded the itinerary and details on Chi-tu. However, the name of Chi-Tu suddenly disappeared from the Chinese chronicles. The reason was not explained by any text, but probably Chi-Tu was merged with the exiled Funan, at that time the Ban-Ban state. After integration of the Malay Peninsula, they established ‘Srivijaya (室利仏逝, Shi-li-fo-shi)’, and sent the first mission to the Tang Court, during 670-673.

Probably it was in 670, because when Yi-Jing left Kanton for India in 671, he had already recognized Srivijaya, in which the Buddhism had been flourishing. After 20 days’ journey, he arrived at Shi-li-fo-shi, where he stayed for 6 months to study the grammar of the Sanskrit language. The king of Srivijaya warmly welcomed Yi Jing and sent him to Mulayu by his own ship, and probably sent him to Tamralipiti (Bengal port) via Kedah and the naked people’s islandss.
The origin of name of 'Shi-li-fo-shi' probably came from 'Khao Si Wichai' located at Phun Pin. Khao Si Wichai (Srivijaya hill) is a small mountain and on the top of which there are several Hindu temples and one Buddhism temple. A Vishnu image was unearthed from there, and now exhibited at the Bangkok National Museum.

Before 670, Chi-tu, Tan-Tan (丹丹) and Ban-Ban(盤盤）had ceased sending envoys to the Tang Court. After absorbing Kedah, Srivijaya intended to control the whole Straits of Malacca. It was necessary for Srivijaya to control the whole Malacca Straits to procure (purchase) the western precious goods coming across the Bay of Bengal. In the middle of the seventh century, the presence of the western countries, Persia and Arab, increased in the Tang Court. This means comparative decrease of Srivijaya’s status in the Tang Court.

In the early 680s, Srivijaya sent an expeditionary navy to put Mulayu (末羅瑜), Jambi and Palembang under its control. After successful campaign, Srivijaya hurriedly had set up several inscriptions near Palembang and Jambi. The main purpose of these inscriptions was showing-off the existence of Srivijaya and threatening the local people to obey the authority of Srivijaya. Thereafter Srivijaya sent force in 686 from the base of the Bangka Island to Kha-ling (訶陵=Sañjaya), located in central Java. The navy had successfully landed at Pekalongan, the major port of Kha-ling. In the central Jawa, where Srivijaya established the Śailendra kingdom. However Śailendra coexisted with Kha-ling kingdom which was later identified as the kingdom of ‘Sañjaya’ or ‘Mataram’ in central Java.

At the end of the 7th century, the territory of Srivijaya (Shi-li-fo-shi) became largest, covering the middle of the Malay Peninsula, the southeast coast of Sumatra and central Java. At the same time, Srivijaya started to control the traffic of the Malacca Straits.

3 Disappearance of Shi-li-fo-shi and emergence of Śailendra

However, the name of Srivijaya had suddenly disappeared as a tributary country to the Tang Dynasty after 742.. Around 745, Water Chenla (水真臘, Cambodia) undoubtedly had attacked the capital of Srivijaya, and occupied Chaiya and Nakhon Si Thammarat. At the same time, the control of the Malacca Straits temporarily collapsed. However, nearly twenty years later, the Srivijaya group counter attacked Chenla and recovered the Chaiya area.　
This event had not been explicitly recorded in any historical inscriptions or some other evidence, so it is a missing link. However, some serious events had certainly happened around this region. The Ligor inscription dated in 755 and the sudden emergence of Śailendra suggest us a series of the unusual events.

Map 4 Territory of Srivijaya (At the end of the 7th century)(差し替えます)

This is the most important point to see the history of Śrivijaya. If Śrivijaya was located at Palembang, there could not be a justifiable reason why Srivijaya suddenly ceased sending embassies after 741, and in 768 Śailendra (new Kha-ling) emerged as a tributary state instead of Śrivijaya to the Tang Court.

Water Chenla had probably attacked and occupied the Bay of Ban Don around 745. Water Chenla sent mission to Tang in 750, but the Srivijaya group counter attacked Water Chenla around 760 and retrieved Chaiya. At that time the main force of the Srivijaya group was the Sailendra navy. And Śailendra became the champion state of the Śrivijaya group. The king of Sailendra, Panangkaran （Panamkaran） was later assigned to the ‘Maharaja’ of the Srivijaya group.

However, for many historians, the hypothesis that Chenla had attacked Chaiya and occupied there must be unacceptable. The reason is very simple because, as they suppose, Srivijaya (Shi-li-fo-shi) was located at Palembang, so Chenla could not have attacked Srivijaya. At the same time they cannot find the reason why Shi-li-fo-shi (室利佛逝) disappeared from the chronicles of the Tang Dynasty after 741. In 768, Śailendra appeared under the name of ‘Kha-ling (訶陵)’ in the Tang chronicles.

For many historians the nature of Śailendra is not clear, so they had continued long discussion, and concluded that San-fo-chi was dominated by Śailendra. This is not a correct answer. My discussion is that Śailendra had belonged to the Srivijayas after they had attacked the central Jawa, the commander Dapunta Selendra (Śailendra) became the king of Sailendra in 686.

Later Water Chenla attacked Chaiya and the Srivijaya group counter attacked Water Chenla at the Bay of Ban Don. The main navy player, the Sailendra king Panangkaran was given the title of the ‘Mahārāja’ of Srivijaya, and thereafter the Sailendra kingdom became the leader of the Srivijaya group. After the victory, the Srivijaya group, led by Panangkaran proceeded to the Mekong River and occupied major ports of Chenla. Around 770, Srivijaya sent big army to Cambodia to occupy the territory of Chenla, of which commander was Jayavarman II. He was probably a prince of Srivijaya’s royal family member.

The victory monument of revenge war at Chaiya is ‘Ligor inscription’ dated 775. Thus Śailendra became the champion state of the Srivijaya group, but curiously Śailendra sent envoys to the Tang Court under the name of ‘Kha-ling (訶陵）’same as former Sañjaya’s. This seems quite mysterious for us. Of course there was a reason why Śailendra must use the name of ‘Kha-ling (Ho-ling), because the Tang Dynasty had never allowed conflict or quarrel among the tributary states. In China, the emperor’s subordinates were not allowed to fight each other.

However the actual shipment of Śailendra’s tribute to China had been mostly dispatched from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, probably Sathing Phra, because where was the most convenient place to gather commodities from the Srivijaya group.

3-1 Ligor Inscription

Around 830, Prince Bālaputra fled to Suwarnadvipa (Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula) but he inherited the title of Mahārāja of Srivijaya. His final destination was probably Kedah. Jambi had already the strongest economic power among the Srivijaya group and the kingship was also unshakable, so Bālaputra seemed to go to Kedah.　He also, probably became the ruler of Chaiya, old Shi-li-fo-shi, and he possibly added some words on the back of Ligor inscription (face B).

Photo 11 & 12 Ligor inscription A & B (Bangkok National Museum

This stele was found at first at Chaiya then removed to Ligor (Nakhon Si Thammarat), in the 13th century by Chandrabhanu, king of Tambralinga after collapse of the Srivijaya group.so it is called the ‘Ligor inscription’.

R.C. Majumdar says in his “Suvarnadvipa, The Śailendra Empire, pp149-150”

“The inscription A begins with eulogy of Sri-Vijayendra-raja, and then refer to the building of three brick temples for Buddhist gods by Sri-Vijayesvarabhupati. Jayanta, the royal priest (Rajasthavira), being ordered by the king, built three stupas. After Jayanta’s death, his disciple and successor Adhimukhti built two brick caityas by the side of the three caityas (built by the king).

The inscription B, engraved on the back of the stele of only one verse and a few letters of the second. It contains the eulogy of an emperor (Rajadhiraja) having the name Vishnu (Visnvakhyo). The last line is not clear. It seems to refer to a lord of the Śailendra Dynasty named Sri- Mahārāja, and though probable, it is not absolutely certain, if this person is the same as Rajadhiraja having the name Vishnu.”

Three ‘stupas’ mean ‘Wat Wieng, Wat Long and Wat Kaeo. Remains of Wat Long and Wat Kaeo are seen at Chaiya, near Wat Wieng.

Ligor A inscription tell about a Srivijayan king named Dharmasetu, the Maharaja, who built the Trisamaya caitya for Kajara. Dharmasetu’s daughter princess Tara was said to be queen of the Maharaja Samaratunga, son of the Maharaja Panangkaran.

While the Ligor B inscription, contains the information about a king named Vishnu who holds the title Sri Maharaja, from Śailendravamśa hailed as Śesavvārimadavimathana (the slayer of arrogant enemies without any trace), who should be the commander of Sailenrdra navy, king Panagkaran. Panangkaran was assigned of the Maharaja of Srivijaya, by Dharmasetu.

There are some different interpretations regarding the king mentioned in Ligor B inscription; some suggest that the king mentioned in this inscription was King Panangkaranwhile other argues that it was his successor, the King Samaratunga (Samaragravira). However, B inscription probably was written by Balaputra around 830s.

Anyway, this inscription suggests there was a fierce battle in this area (with the Water Chenla army), and many soldiers were killed.

3-2 Śailendra Dynasty Sailendra and Sanjaya co-existed (dual kingdoms).

After conquering Palembang and Jambi, next Srivijaya attacked the central Jawa Island. The Kota Kapur inscription of the Bangka Island, wrote that Srivijaya wanted to attack the island of Jawa because they refused to obey Srivijaya’s policy on the tributary trade. G.Coedès said that the Srivijaya army went to attack the ‘west Jawa’, not the central Jawa. In the west Jwva there was Taruma (多羅摩，or 堕婆登=Duo-po-deng),which sent tributary mission in 647. (G.Coedès, English, 1968, p83) G.Coedès misunderstood Taruma was a major competitor for Srivijaya. Srivijaya’s rival was Kha-ling (訶陵）located in the central Jawa and not Taruma in the ‘west Jawa’. Kha-ling had sent the tributary missions many times in 640, 647, 648 and 666 and stopped suddenly after 666. Why G.Coedès avoided Kha-ling, it is because G.Coedès thought Funan had fled to the central Jawa from the Mekong Delta in the middle of the 6th century. So, Srivijaya had no reason to attack Kha-ling. However, Duo-po-deng (堕婆登=Taruma?) in the west Jawa was a small country and could not be Srivijaya’s rival.

G.Coedès says: “The inscription of Bangka closes by mentioning the departure of an expedition against the unsubdued land of Jawa in 686. The land referred to, may have been the ancient kingdom of Taruma, on the other side of the Sunda Strait, which we do not have spoken again after its embassy to China in 666-69.” (G.Coedès, English, 1968, p83). However, the last mission of Duo-po-deng was in 647. Here again G.Coedès made mistake or told a lie.

The Srivijaya’s navy directly attacked and occupied Pekalongan area. The Sojomerto inscription is a symbol of the victory monument of the Srivijaya force. Pekalongan was the major port of the central Jawa.

In the Ling wei Tai-ta (嶺外代答)' published in 1178, by Chou Ch'u-fei(周去非) wrote that Jawa (闍婆國) other name is Pekalongan (莆家龍). 「闍婆國，又名莆家龍，在海東南」. However, at least before the Tang Dynasty era, the concept of ‘Java (闍婆)’, had included the Malay Peninsula. In the early 5th century, high Buddhist priest Gnavarman (求那跋摩) said to have visited ‘Java’, but in his case he could not have visited the Jawa Island, because before the 5th century, Buddhism was not so popular there. He must have visited the Ban-Ban state (Chaiya) of the Malay Peninsula where Mahayana Buddhism had flourished already, and its king was a devotee of Buddhism. On the other hand, in the Jawa Island, the infrastructure of Buddhism was very scarce. Even a single ancient Buddha footprint did not exist there.

The Srivijaya Army defeated and captured the capital of central Jawanese Sanjaya kingdom (Kha-ling) in 686. However, the Sailendra kingdom had not demolished the Sanjaya kingship. Both kingships had co-existed. The dual kingships (parallel kingship) continued.

If Srivijaya completely occupied the central Jawa, someday the Tang Dynasty would notice the fact, and Srivijaya should be penalized by the Tang Court. So, Srivijaya pretended the old Kha-ling unchanged as if nothing had happened. Srivijaya's purpose was to secure the major port of Jawa and monopolize the tribute to Tang. Srivijaya had no intention to dominate the rural areas of the Jawa Island to get the surplus agricultural products from farmers. It is because, traditionally Funan and Srivijaya had no administrative officials belonging to the kingdom. So Sailendra could not dominate whole Jawa from the beginning. As the result, Sanjaya was allowed to continue the administration of inland Jawa and Sanjaya could have accumulated wealth and the real political power and finally kicked out the Sailendra kingdom from Jawa after the death of Maharaja Samaratunga around 820. Sailendra had been satisfied with monopolizing the international trade and navy.

The Kha-ling sent the next tributary mission in 768, after 100 years’ interval. This Kha-ling is apparently ‘Sailendra (Srivijaya)’.

In the history of the Angkor Dynasty, the founder is Jayavarman II, who came to Cambodia from ‘Java’, but where was Java? M. Vickery says that Java is ‘Cham’ i.e. ‘Lin-yi’ (Champa). In addition, M. Vickery thinks Sailendra (Dapunta Selendra) was originally a Javanese king and Sailendra has nothing to with Srivijaya. This is because he ignored the historical development and establishment of Srivijaya.

Kha-ling is divided into ‘early’ and ‘latter’. The Early Kha-ling was Sanjaya and the ‘Latter (new) Kha-ling’ was Sailendra. Most historians do not understand the difference of the Kha-ling’s tribute missions between Sanjaya and Sailendra. The Kha-ling of Sanajaya’s mission stopped after 666 and the Sailendra’s Kha-ling started tribute mission in 768. Because Sailendra was given authority to send mission to China, representing the Srivijaya Group, after the victory of war against Water Chenla at the Bay of Ban Don and the king of Sailendra (Panangkaran) had been given the title of ‘Maharaja’ of Srivijaya. Before that Sailendra was one of subordinate states of the Srivijaya group.

‘The Sailendra Kha-ling’ had broader business basis, because which was representing the whole Srivijaya group. And its shipping port was changed to Sathing Phra (north of Songkhla) in the Malay Peninsula from Chaiya or Songkhla. The‘Sanjaya Kha-ling’ was limited its business base within the central Jawa and its shipping port was Pekalongan. The presence of Srivijaya to the Tang Court was so big. Srivijaya stopped sending envoy after 741, but Sailendra (the New Kha-ling) succeeded Srivijaya’s business. In the Song times, San-fo-chi succeeded the Sailendra business.

In the central Jawa Island, Sailendra controlled international trade and navy. The Sailendra’s Kha-ling started tribute mission in 768, but the actual business was handled in the Malay Peninsula, at Phatthalung and Sathing Phra.

King Panangkaran, after he returned to the central Jawa, he unified the Jawa Island to the Śailendra Dynasty. Because he was assigned to the Mahārāja of Srivijaya. Mahārāja Panangkaran had stripped of ‘the delegacy’ of the Sanjaya (former Kha-ling) royal family which had been a co-ruler of the central Java for nearly 100 years.

The Śailendra Dynasty constructed the biggest Mahayana Buddhism temple in the world, the ‘Borobudur temple’, as the commemoration of the great victory over Chenla . At that time, probably there were not so many Buddhists in Jawa. Buddhism might be widely introduced into the Jawa Ilands after the occupation by Srivijaya in 686.

However, the Sanjaya group, too, constructed the ‘Prambanan Siva temple’ in the middle of the 9th century after Rakai Pikatan had kicked out Prince Balaputra from Jawa (The Shiva-grha epitaph of 856).

There is an opinion that the Borobudur temple had been naturally buried by the eruption of the ‘Merabi volcano’, but it is difficult to believe. The Borobudur temple, possibly had been buried with earth by Sanjaya, as the result it could have fortunately survived under earth.

Thanks to it, it will be possible to say that a state of good preservation had been maintained until the staff of Sir Stanford Raffles discovered it in the 19th century.

Both are the historic evidence how Śailendra and Sanjaya had co-existed near Jogjakarta since 686 until around 830.

Around 830, Crown Prince Balaputra of Śailendra was defeated at war, by Rakai Pikatan, prince of the Sanjaya family, and husband of Balaputra’s elder sister, princess Pramodhawardhani. Soon after the death of their father Mahārāja Samaratunga, the battle had started between Sailendra and Sanjaya. As the result, Balaputra was defeated and was driven out of the Jawa Island around 830 and the Śailendra kingdom in the Jawa Island disappeared forever.

Rakai Pikatan assumed the kingship in 838, so Bālaputra might have left Jawa before that. At that time unity of Srivijaya once collapsed.

The military activity of Sailendra must be remembered that during 760~830, Sailendra led the Srivijaya’s expansion to Cambodia. After defeating ‘Water Chenla’ at the Chaiya region, the Sailendra navy proceeded to the Mekong Delta, and next to the sea-shore of Indochina, the territory of Lin-yi. The Sailendra navy probably destroyed the export facilities (including big merchant ships) of Lin-yi. So, Lin-yi had to stop sending the tributary mission to Tang after 749. The name of Lin-yi never appeared after 758 in the Chinese chronicles.

After invading to Cambodia, the Srivijaya group tried to destroy the Chenla kingdom and established a new polity, the Angkor Dynasty. This story is told later as “The Angkor Dynasty”.

Before the ‘New Kha-ling’ sent its first tribute mission to Tang in 768, the Śailendra navy should have secured the Mekong Delta River mouth.

The story that Srivijaya broke into the Mekong River and invaded the coastal capital, killing the King, had prevailed among the Arab merchants, and an Arab scholar, Sulaiman wrote the similar story in 851. An ambitious Chenla King was anxious to attack the Mahārāja of Srivijaya, but the Mahārāja knew beforehand his intention and attacked Chenla. The Chenla king was beheaded by the Srivijaya army and his head was returned to the prince of Chenla king. But his name is unknown.

Q. Wales suggests that was Mahipativarman. However, he stayed throne during 780-788. King Sumbhuvarman reigned during 730-760, so he might be a killed king. But I cannot confirm his existence. Who were the kings of Water Chenla, after Queen Jayadevi? There is no record. The new king of the Angkor Kingdom, Jayavarman II was a prince of the Srivijaya group. Without doubt, he was strongly supported by the Sailendra navy. The Angkor Kingdom had been under control of the Srivijaya group for nearly 300 years.

The Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about the Mahārāja Samaratunga. His daughter named Pramodhawardhani has inaugurated the Jinalaya, a sacred Buddhist sanctuary. The inscription also mentioned a sacred Buddhist building called the Venuvana to place the cremated ashes of King Indra (Samaratunga?). The Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about the ‘sima (tax free)’ lands awarded by Śrī Kahulunan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamulan called Bhūmisambhāra (Borobudur). ‘The mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood’, was the original name of ‘Borobudur’.

Photo 14-1 Borobudur,;　Sailendra navy ship on the Borobudur relief. Photo 14-2 Sailendra soldier on the Borobudur relief. Borobudur is the largest Mahayana Buddhist structure in the world built by the Śailendra Dynasty under Samaratunga.

The Mahārāja Samaratunga was the head of the Śailendra kingdom who ruled the central Java and the Srivijaya group in the 8th and the early 9th century. He was the successor of Mahārāja Panangkaran, and his name was mentioned in the Karangtengah inscription dated 824, as the constructor of a sacred Buddhist building called Venuvana (Sanskrit: bamboo forest) to place the cremated ashes of his predecessor Mahārāja Panangkaran of Śailendra. During his administration, he initiated the construction of a giant Buddhist monument Borobudur. Samaratunga married Dewi Tara, the princess of Srivijayan ruler Dharmasetu (former Maharaja). This marriage strengthened the authority of the Shailendra’s family among the Srivijaya group.

Under the reign of Panangkaran, Jayavarman II was appointed as the governor of Indrapura (the Angkor kingdom) in the Mekong delta. According to the SKT inscription, Jayavarman II later pretended to have revoked his allegiance to the Sailedra and Srivijaya to form the Khmer Empire. In 813 and 814, Water Chenla (Angkor) sent tributary missions, but after then stopped sending envoys to Tang. Probably Srivijaya forced ‘Water Chenla’ to stop sending envoys to Tang. This Water Chenla was without doubt the Angkor Dynasty. In 1116, Suryavarman II resumed the tribute mission to China, after 300 years absence.

The role of Tambralinga（Nakhon Si Thammarat）which is situated the south of Chaiya, as the special headquarters, was to take care of the small states facing the Gulf of Thailand and collect the annual tributes (including tax) for Srivijaya (San-fo-chi). Furthermore, Tambarlinga took care of the Angkor, Khmer matters and supervised Lopburi where Srivijaya put the military base. Many military commanders of Angkor were dispatched by Tambralinga. Later the prince of Tambralinga, Suryavarman I directly took the throne of the Angkor Dynasty.

4. San-fo-choi after end of Sailendra and revival Sanjaya

Around 820, after Mahārāja Samaratuńga died, probably the second Mahārāja of Śailendra, his daughter Prāmodāwardhanī might have succeeded him as ‘Queen’, but she had married with Sanjaya prince Rakai Pikatan. As the result Samaratunga’s son Prince Bālaputra had lost helm in the central Jawa and the kingship of Śailendra.

The Śailendra Dynasty of the central Jawa had lost hegemony after Mahārāja Samaratunga (son of Panangkaran) died around 820. The crown prince Balaputradeva was defeated by Sanjaya prince Rakai Pikatan, whose wife was Balaputra's elder sister princess Pramodawardani.

Bālaputra was exiled from the Jawa Island around 830. Balaputra first called in the Jambi state, but he could not have stayed there, because Jambi had established strong kingdom by themselves and probably had not accepted the authority of Balaputra. After all, Balaputra moved to the Malay Peninsula and settled in Kedah and called himself the Mahārāja of Śailendra (Srivijaya). He controlled Chaiya, too. At that time, Tambralinga had been the military headquarters of the Srivijaya group and half-independent and was busy to control the Angkor kingdom. However Srivijaya group had once collapsed.

Jambi sent envoys to Tang independently in 852 and 871. The independent behavior of Jambi might have given a big shock to the Srivijaya group. On the other hand, the Śailendra kingdom had continued sending the envoy to Tang, 2 times in 827-33 and in 860-874 from the Malay Peninsula. In this case ‘Sailedra (訶陵)‘ might have shipped tribute from Sathing Phra. They had imported the western goods at Kedah.　

However, Jambi probably had realized a single state could not make big profit, and at the end of the 9th century, big three states of the Srivijaya group established a new polity, ‘San-fo-chi（三佛斉）. San-fo-chi means three vijayas, namely Chaiya, Kedah and Jambi. Chaiya and Tambralinga took care of the Gulf of Thailand and the east region. Kedah took care of the north end of the Malacca Straits and Jambi the south end of the Straits.

On the other hand, the Sanjaya kingdom sent its mission 3 times in 820, 831 and 839. The Sanjaya mission used the name of ‘Java （闍婆）’. So, Sanjaya might have recovered the regin of Jawa before 820 It is very funny why Sanjaya had not used their old name Kha-ling (訶陵)？　The answer is obvious, if Sanjaya used the name of ‘Kha-ling’, the fact that Sanjaya had kicked out Śailendra after the battle would be revealed.

The Tang Court had strictly prohibited battle between the vassal states.　Another question about the Sanjaya mission, why they sent envoy in 820, at that time Prince Balaputra was still active in Jawa. I suppose before 820, the Maharaja Samaratunga might have died and his daughter Pramodhawardhani declared the queen of Śailendra. But the other Srivijaya group might not have accepted her authority. Because she was a wife of Rakai Pikatan, a prince of Sanjaya. At first, Rakai Pikatan fought against Balaputra for the authority of his wife (queen), but after his victory, he assumed himself the king of Sanjaya kingdom and dominated the Jawa Island.

Their method of trade is collecting the tribute goods from all of the Srivijaya group to Phatthalung (near Nakhon Si Thammarat) and transport them to Sathing Phra, then shipped to China. So, Phatthalung was the distributing center for San-fo-chi group and shipping port was Sathing Phra.

In the San-fo-chi times, Phatthalung was used to collect the tributary goods from all of the Srivijaya states and the rewards from the Song Dynasty were redistributed there. In 2014, huge amount of gold and gold artifacts were discovered at Phatthalung, which may be a part of the rewards from the Song Dynasty, perhaps secretly hidden by the officials of San-fo-chi.

In 2014, occasionally big amount of gold products were discovered at Phatthalung. They were the evidence of Phatthalung's role as the distribution center of the Srivijaya group. The officials of the Song Court had recognized ‘Sathing Phra’ was the official port of the Srivijaya group.

Photo 10, Gold artifact from China discovered at Phatthalung

San-fo-chi had started activity after the establishment of the North Song Dynasty (in 960).

Anyway, Chaiya was the center of Srivijaya group on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula and controlled the Gulf of Thailand.
Chaiya had still functioned as a major international commercial port and at the same time the center of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the sea-shore of Laem Pho, Chaiya there are plenty of porcelain and ceramic shards of the Tang and Song age.

4-1 Chola’s invasion (1025～1080?） and its influence

For San-fo-chi, the most important country of the West was Chola (Tamil). So, San-fo-chi had tried to keep good diplomatic relation with Chola.

San-fo-chi King Culamanivarmadeva (Kedah based), had constructed a temple at Nagapatam village in Chola and donated the temple to Chola. Later to maintain the temple, Sri Maravijayottungavarman, son of Culamanivarmadeva donated villages in 1006. This is recorded in the ‘great Leiden copper plate inscription’. The relation between San-fo-chi and Chola used to be very intimate and friendly. As above mentioned, Suryavarman I of Angkor sent letter to the Chola King to ask for help his battle in the Chao Phraya basin.

However, the relation became suddenly worse after Chola sent tributary mission in 1015 to the North Song dynasty. At that time, the mission of Chola took 1,150 days to arrive at Guangzhou. It was unusually long journey. Usually it took less than one year. Probably some serious troubles on voyage in the Malacca Straits had happened.

San-fo-chi had controlling the whole Malacca Straits and forced all merchant-ships from western countries to sell one-third of their cargos. San-fo-chi probably wanted to enforce the same rule to the king’s ship from Chola. The ambassador of Chola mission possibly resisted San-fo-chi. According to the Zhu-fan-zhi (諸蕃志,1225), San-fo-chi required for the foreign ships to sell one third of their commodities before entering its port, otherwise they were attacked by the San-fo-chi navy. Chola probably got angry with the attitude of San-fo-chi and decided to attack San-fo-chi to secure the convenient trade route to China.

Chola had attacked San-fo-chi in 1025, and the main target was Kedah of the Malay Peninsula where was the entrance of the trans-peninsula route.

. The following translation and list of the Tanjore inscription was made by RC. Majumdar: I add some comments on the list.

“And (who) (Rājendra Cola) having dispatched many ships in the midst of the rolling sea and having caught Sańgrāma-Vijayottuńgavarman, the king of Kadāram (Kedah), along with the rutting elephants of his army, (took) the large heap of treasures, which (that king) had rightfully accumulated; (captured) the (arch called) Vidyādhara-toraņa at the “war gate” of the extensive city of the enemy; Śrī-Vijaya with “Jewel-gate”, adorned with great splendor and the “gate of large jewels”; Paņņai, watered by the river; the ancient Malaiyŭr (with) a fort situated on a high hill; Māyirudińgam, surrounded by the deep sea (as) a moat; Ilańgāśogam undaunted (in) fierce battles; Māpapāļam, having abundant (deep) waters as defense; Meviļmbańgam, having fine walls as defense; Vaļaipandūŗu, possessing (both) cultivated land (?) and jungle; Talaittakkolam, praised by great men (versed in) the sciences; Mādamālińgam, firm in great and fierce battles; Ilāmurideśam, whose fierce strength was subdued by a vehement (attack); Māņakkavāram whose flower-gardens (resembled) the girdle (of the nymph) of the southern region; Kadāram, of fierce strength, which was protected by the neighboring sea.”

① Śrī-Vijaya⇒Chaiya. Chiya was connected with Takua Pa and the center of San-fo-chi. But most historians believe it as Palembang. However, Palembang was not important as the port for Chinese trade.
② Paņņai⇒Panei on the east coast of Sumatra.
③ Malaiyŭr⇒Mulayu including Jambi.

④ Māyirudińgam⇒Majumdar comments that ‘MĂ’ means ‘maha’ in Sanskrit, so yirudińgam means ‘Jerteh (日羅亭；near Kuala Besut)’ which is also described by Chao Ju-kua（趙汝适）in the Zhu-fan-zhi. Concerning Jerteh there are many opinions. I suppose Jerteh locates south of Kota Bharu, near Kuala Busak. This port was probably connected with Kedah.

⑤ Ilańgāśogam⇒Belongs to the old territory of Langkasuka which was supposed to be Nakhon Si Thammarat. Many people believe it located at Pattani. The Zhu-fan-zhi says Langkasuka was located six days’ journey from Tambralinga (Nakhon Si Thammarat) by sea, but it is probably mistaken.

⑥ Māpapāļam⇒Pahang.

⑦ Meviļmbańgam⇒Kamalanka? Some say Kamalanka is the old Langkasuka located on the isthmus of Ligor, but no evidence.

⑧ Vaļaipandūŗu⇒Panduranga (Phan Rang, Champa port)?

⑨ Talaittakkolam⇒Takola of Ptolemy. Takua Pa.

⑩ Mādamālińgamya⇒Tambralinga. Nakhon Si Tammarat.

⑪ Ilāmurideśam⇒Lamuri, Sumatra.

⑫ Māņakkavāram⇒Nicobar Island.

⑬ Kadāram⇒Kedah

R.C. Majumdar did not put Śrī-Vijaya in the above list. Śrī-Vijaya is probably Chaiya but most historians believe it was Palembang. For Chola, Palembang was not important state, because Palembang was out of the trade course to go to China. But Chaiya was more important port. Chola attacked Takua Pa, so Chola also should have captured Chaiya, because both states were strategic ports covering the Gulf of Thailand.

For Chola, Kedah (Kadāram) was the most important target. Chola attacked major ports of San-fo-chi, but Jambi kept relative independence, because Jambi was not so important for Chola, as the trade route to China.

In 1025, The Chola attacked and occupied Kedah. The main purpose of Chola was the monopolistic use of the Malay Peninsula’s crossing commerce road, which seemed of great merit for them.Chola had no intention to occupy whole San-fo-chi, Chola wanted to dominate the shortest trade route to China. So, Chola occupied Kedah and put a governor, Deva Kulo there. In 1067, Chola received request from the King of Kedah to overcome the rebellion, after victory Chola returned the sovereign to the king of Kedah. Chola sent tributary missions under the name of ‘San-fo-chi, Chola’ in 1033,1077, 1079, 1084, 1088, 1090. Chola had pretended to be a subordinate state of San-fo-chi.

Jambi sent independently tributary mission in 1079 and 1082, under the name of ‘San-fo-chi Jambi ‘. Apparently, Jambi was one of ‘Three Vijaya States’. So, the North Song dynasty did not give ‘rewards’ to Jambi. The Song Court said that Song would give reward only to ‘San-fo-chi’, not to Jambi. The result is unknown, but the Song Court regarded Jambi as the major member of San-fo-chi together with Kedah and Chaiya, so Jambi had no reason to send the tributary mission independently.

However, Chola could not have used the route so often and returned it to San-fo-chi about 60 years later. Probably Chola had not sufficient commodities to send frequent tributes to China, on the other hand the maintenance cost to occupy the Peninsula was too high. After Chola retreated, San-fo-chi once again solidified unity and regained vitality.

The importance of existence of San-fo-chi faded away because the South Song Dynasty abolished the traditional tributary system at the end of the 12th century. The South Song Dynasty changed all the tributary trade system to the ‘general commerce trade system’(市舶司) with the import duty, but reserved the right to purchase the most needed goods. The South Song government had to avoid the expensive traditional ‘tribute and rewards’ system due to the financial difficulty.

San-fo-chi sent the last mission to the South Song Court in 1178, and then after nothing was heard about San-fo-chi. I suppose that San-fo-chi became extinct spontaneously soon after the end of the tributary system.　The name of San-fo-chi remained in the mind and memory of local people.

In the 13th century, Chandrabhanu of the military chief of Tambralinga made proclamation of independence (1230) and put the territory of Srivijaya in the Malay Peninsula under his control.

However, the king Chandrabhanu had sent army to Ceylon two times and failed. At the end of the 13th century, the king Rama Khamheng of the Sukhothai kingdom put Tambralinga under his control.

At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty a mission came to the Ming Court from the Palembang state with the tribute, declaring that they came from ‘San-fo-chi’. But, San-fo-chi had disappeared more than 200 years ago. So, their story was apparent lie, but nobody of the Ming Court noticed their lie

The officials of the Ming Court knew nothing about San-fo-chi. Ma-Huan（馬歓）、in 1416, wrote this story in his book the “Ying-yai Sheng-lan　(瀛涯勝覧)” without proper comment. In the Meiji time in Japan, some scholars took up this text and they believed that Palembang was San-fo-chi. Unfortunately, at first, no Japanese historian noticed this story of the Palembang was a simple lie.

5 Conclusion

Historically Funan, Srivijaya, Sailendra and San-fo-chi had lasted for nearly 1000 years, since the early 3rd century until the end of the 12th century. The Srivijaya group had dominated ‘East-West trade’ during 1000 years. Why they could have survived? I think the most important factor is the Srivijaya rulers had the rational strategy and kept the rules of Chinese Dynasty. They found first that the international business is the most profitable, especially the tributary system with the Chinese Dynasties. So, Funan tried to monopolize the imports of the western goods, which would be presented to the Chinese Dynasties. The Chinese Emperors gave them very high rewards to the foreign ‘vassals’. Moreover, the Chinese Court was a major buyer. They also tried to monopolize purchasing the precious imports. The trade was well controlled and autholized. Foreign missions had to perform very complicated ceremony to pay respect to the Emperors at the time.

Long lasting Funan's strategy was invented by Great General 'Fan (Shi) Man (范(師)蔓）’in the 3rd century. He made a fleet of long rowing boats first and occupied the major ports of the neighbouring seaside, where the west merchants historicaly stopped over and Funan monopolize to purchase the western goods there. Funan originally transported the imported goods to the Mekong River through on land route. Funan accumulated them at the port of Oc Eo, and then shipped them to China.
Fan Man occupied Takua Pa at that time. Then Funan developed the trans-peninsula transportation of the imports to Chaiya, Surat Thani at the Bay of Bandon where had been the territory of the Mon rulers (Ban-Ban kingdom). Then Funan shifted shipping port from Oc Eo to Ban-Ban (Chaiya) gradually. When Chenla destroyed Funan in Cambodia around the middle of the sixth century, Funan could restart the whole trade business from Ban-Ban. It was natural shift for Funan leaders. Funan integrated the middle Malay Peninsula after merged Chi-tu (赤土国） and formed Shi-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya) in the 7th century. Srivijaya next tried to control the whole Malacca Straits and occupied Mulayu, Jambi and Palembang. Further Srivijaya conquered the central Jawa, Kha-ling (訶陵） kingdom (Sanjaya) in 686. The Śailendra kingdom was established there but Srivijaya had no intention to dominate the whole Kha-ling (Sanjaya). Srivijaya aimed to monopolize the international trade and navy.

Water Chenla occupied Ban-Ban (center of Shi-li-fo-shi) around 745, but the Srivijaya group counter attacked Water Chenla at Chaiya. The major Srivijaya force was the Śailendra navy of Jawa. After the victory, the king of Śailendra (Panangkaran) was appointed as the Mahārāja of Srivijaya. The Srivijaya group proceeded their navy to the Mekong River and occupied major cities. Then Jayavarman II was dispatched as the new ruler of Water Chenla. It was the beginning of the Angkor Dynasty. However, around 830, Śailendra prince Balaputra was defeated by Sanjaya prince Rakai Pikatan, and lost the reign of the Jawa Island. So Srivijaya set back to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, and later Srivijaya organized San-fo-chi, which is the allied state of three major Srivijaya kingdoms, Jambi, Kedah and Chaiya. But San-fo-chi was invaded by the Tamil kingdom, Chola in 1025. Chola's purpose was to destroy Srivijaya's monopoly of the Malay Peninsula trade facility, but around 1080 Chola returned the reign to San-fo-chi. San-fo-chi regained the tributary right to China. However, the South Song finished the tributary system in 1178 due to the financial difficulty. As the result, San-fo-chi disappeared naturally, and we have not heard its name after that.

In the 15th century, Palembang state appeared as 'the former San-fo-chi', but there was no ground to say that. Palembang was one of small vassal states of San-fo-chi.
Anyway, the Srivijaya group had survived for nearly1000 years, starting the Funan kingdom of the Mekong delta. Their strategy is to keep the strong position in the tributary system and maintained the strong navy consisted of fleets of rowing long boats.

The religion of Srivijaya was Mahayana Buddhism. Sailendra was a typical Mahayana Buddhist kingdom, which built the Borobudure temple.. In Angkor, Mahayana Buddhism had prevailed, which had been dominated by Srivijaya for long time.